Dec. 09, 2024
A confident look crosses your face, perhaps accompanied by a cheeky grin; victory is in sight, my friend! This is the question that can make you a million, earn you a once-in-a-lifetime holiday, grant you the title of office genius, or secure that elusive slice of pie on the Trivial Pursuit board.
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Since the inception of human societies, colonies have raced against one another to uncover new technologies and be the first to claim discoveries. Despite millennia of evolution—most of us, anyway—the urge to be first remains deeply ingrained in our nature. This passion can sometimes lead unscrupulous individuals to claim others' discoveries as their own. While many breakthroughs occur simultaneously or in tandem, proving one's pioneering role can be contentious.
And so we arrive at the story of stainless steel.
The term 'inventor' is quite ambiguous. Are we speaking of the first person to think of it, document it, patent it, or produce it? Additionally, stainless steel wasn't precisely defined until the late 19th century, so should we dismiss those chromium-iron alloys that do not meet the minimum requirement of 10.5% chromium?
Claims of inventing stainless steel abound from various countries, including Britain, Germany, France, Poland, the U.S.A., and even Sweden.
The journey began with Englishmen Stoddart and Faraday circa 1820 and Frenchman Pierre Berthier in 1821. These scientists noted that iron-chromium alloys exhibited increased resistance to certain acids, but tests were limited to low chromium alloys. Attempts to produce higher chromium alloys were hindered largely due to a lack of understanding about the significance of low carbon content.
In 1912, Englishmen Woods and Clark patented an acid and weather-resistant iron alloy comprising 30-35% chromium and 2% tungsten, effectively establishing the first patent for what we now recognize as stainless steel. However, true advancement emerged in 1913, when Frenchman Brustlein emphasized the necessity of maintaining low carbon content for successful stainless steel production, noting that to achieve a high percentage of chromium, carbon content must remain below roughly 0.15%.
This revelation led to a two-decade stagnation in stainless steel development, as many scientists struggled to create low-carbon stainless steel, with no success.
Progress resumed in 1920, when Hans Goldschmidt of Germany developed the aluminothermic reduction process for producing carbon-free chromium, making the development of stainless steels feasible.
In 1922, French scientist Leon Guillet conducted extensive research on various iron-chromium alloys. His work included analyses of compositions that would later fit into the 410, 420, 442, 446, and 440-C categories. Guillet also examined iron-nickel-chrome alloys in 1924, which now form the basis of the 300 series. Nonetheless, he overlooked the crucial aspect of corrosion resistance in his observations.
In 1930, Englishman Giesen published a detailed study regarding chromium-nickel steels, while French national Portevin investigated alloys now recognized as 430 stainless steel. It wasn't until 1932 that Germans P. Monnartz and W. Borchers identified the significance of a minimum chromium content, discovering a direct correlation between chromium levels and corrosion resistance. They noted a marked increase in corrosion resistance when at least 10.5% chromium was present, and they also produced detailed works on the effects of molybdenum on this characteristic.
At this juncture, we introduce Harry Brearley, born in Sheffield, England, in 1871. He became the lead researcher at Brown Firth Laboratories in 1908. In 1912, Brearley was tasked by a small arms manufacturer to enhance the lifespan of gun barrels that were eroding too quickly. Initially aiming to create an erosion-resistant steel—not necessarily a corrosion-resistant one—he began experimenting with steel alloys that contained chromium. Throughout these experiments, Brearley crafted several variations of his alloys, with chromium levels ranging between 6% to 15% and varying amounts of carbon.
On August 13, 1913, Brearley created a steel alloy containing 12.8% chromium and 0.24% carbon, which can be argued as the first true stainless steel. The circumstances surrounding Brearley’s discovery are often shrouded in myth; some enchanting tales suggest he discarded his steel, only to later observe it had not rusted as much as its counterparts, reminiscent of Alexander Fleming's experience 15 years later.
More credible, albeit less alluring narratives assert that Brearley needed to etch his steel samples with nitric acid and examine them under a microscope to assess their potential resistance to chemical attack. He found his new steel remarkably resistant, conducting further tests with substances like lemon juice and vinegar, and was astonished by its enduring resistance. He immediately recognized the potential applications of his steel within the cutlery industry.
Brearley struggled to gain the support of his employers, ultimately deciding to produce his new steel with local cutler R. F. Mosley. He faced challenges in crafting knife blades from this innovative steel that wouldn't rust or stain. In search of assistance, he turned to his old school friend, Ernest Stuart, Cutlery Manager at Mosley’s Portland Works. Within three weeks, Stuart hadn't just perfected the hardening process for knives; he also coined the term 'Stainless Steel' after testing the alloy in vinegar, a name that has stuck to this day.
Between Brearley’s discovery in 1913 and subsequent developments, numerous scientists and metallurgists emerged with parallel claims to the title of 'inventor of stainless steel.'
In 1912, the Germans entered the field as the Krupp Iron Works produced chrome-nickel steel, intended for the hull of the Germania yacht. Currently, The Half Moon, as the yacht is called, lies submerged off the east coast of Florida, and whether this steel meets the minimum 10.5% chromium requirement remains unclear. Eduard Maurer and Benno Strauss, employees of Krupp Works, also worked from 1914 to develop austenitic steels with <1% carbon, <20% nickel, and 15-40% chromium.
The United States soon entered the scene as well. Elwood Haynes, after growing frustrated with a rusty razor, endeavored to create a corrosion-resistant steel and is said to have succeeded around 1915. Two other Americans, Becket and Dantsizen, worked on ferritic stainless steels containing 14-16% chromium and 0.07-0.15% carbon during the years 1912-1915.
Despite their claims, many supporters from across Europe and the U.S. maintained contention over the status of 'first true stainless steel.' In 1920, Max Mauermann of Poland is rumored to have crafted the first stainless steel, showcasing his work at the Adria exhibition in Vienna.
Moreover, a recently discovered article published in a Swedish hunting and fishing magazine in 1925 discusses a steel allegedly used for gun barrels, which appears similar to stainless steel. Though speculative, the Swedish have made bold assertions claiming responsibility for the first practical application of stainless steel.
In conclusion, while the origin of stainless steel is often shrouded in mystery and speculation, it is unequivocal that the concerted efforts of scientists and metallurgists have resulted in the development of this versatile metal. If you seek an answer to the initial question? Harry Brearley stands out.
Unlike iron, which has been utilized for over a millennium, stainless steel is a relatively new entrant in materials science, having first been produced merely a century ago. This fact may surprise many, given the metal's presence in virtually every aspect of modern life. Its rapid integration into various sectors is a testament to the importance of this breakthrough. Stainless steel has transformed modern manufacturing across diverse fields, such as healthcare, catering, automotive, and construction industries. Crucially, it has consistently outperformed traditional materials like copper, aluminum, and carbon steel.
The secret to stainless steel's success lies in its outstanding physical and chemical properties. With high corrosion resistance, heat resistance (up to 800°C [1,472°F]), formability, weldability, and durability, it does not rust. This metal also exhibits minimal reactivity with numerous substances and is relatively affordable compared to specialized non-corrosive alloys. Over the last century, metallurgists have refined methods to produce stainless steels, manage their properties, and mass-produce a consistent quality.
The year 2021 marks the centenary of the invention of this remarkable metal. In this article, we overview the history of one of the most significant breakthroughs in materials science.
In 1913, Harry Brearley from Sheffield, UK, discovered 'rustless' steel. Although there were several earlier attempts, Brearley is credited with inventing the first true stainless steel, which contained 12.8% chromium. He added chromium to molten iron, yielding a metal resistant to rusting. Chromium is a vital ingredient, providing corrosion resistance. Following this discovery, Sheffield became synonymous with steel and metallurgy.
Brearley’s breakthrough occurred while seeking solutions to the erosion of gun barrel interiors for the British Army as World War I loomed.
Subsequent advancements in stainless steel emerged rapidly. In 1919, Elwood Haynes obtained a patent for martensitic stainless steel. In 1924, William J. Kroll from Luxembourg discovered precipitation-hardening stainless steel for the first time. The following year saw the first production of duplex stainless steel at Sweden's Avesta Ironworks.
The outstanding properties of stainless steel were recognized gradually, highlighted in the timeline of significant moments in its history.
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Request a Quote HereOver the past century, around 100 grades of stainless steel have been discovered and made commercially available. These fall into four primary family groups: martensitic, ferritic, austenitic, and duplex. Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels exhibit magnetism, while austenitic stainless steels are non-magnetic. These classifications feature varying amounts of other alloying elements like nickel, titanium, and copper. Furthermore, carbon and nitrogen are included to enhance overall stainless steel characteristics.
Presently, China holds the title of the largest stainless steel producer globally. Among the leading stainless steel producers and distributors is Outokumpu, headquartered in Espoo, Finland.
Stainless steel has found diverse applications, from the tiniest components in artificial heart valves to monumental architectural structures. Several world-renowned monuments, such as the Cloud Gate sculpture in Chicago, have been crafted using stainless steel.
With increasing awareness of reducing carbon emissions, many countries advocate for the use of stainless steel. Its corrosion resistance and prolonged service life reduce the need for frequent replacements and repairs. Additionally, stainless steel is entirely recyclable and maintains its quality upon reprocessing, allowing for multiple life cycles. The sustainability of stainless steel remains unmatched among other metals.
STEEL: From Start to Finish
The anticipated growth of stainless steel aligns with the increasing recognition of its sustainability benefits. Researchers have even discovered that coating stainless steel with specific bio-inspired adhesives can render it anti-bacterial, further adding to stainless steel's benefits.
This innovative material is poised to remain integral in use well into the next century and beyond.
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